نویسندگان

پژوهشگاه هوافضا

چکیده

در طول جنگ خلیج فارس 1990 ارزش دارایی‌های فضایی برای هدایت جنگ برای اولین بار در حد زیادی مشخص شده و عملیات طوفان صحرا بهعنوان اولین جنگ فضایی نگریسته شد و این واقعیت که استفاده از فناوری فضایی می تواند زیرساختی فراهم آورد تا به پیاده سازی استراتژی‌های نظامی کمک کند. فناوری فضایی نقشی مهم در عملیات نظامی ناتو در صربستان و کوزوو در 1999 و افغانستان در 2001 بازی کرد. در طول حمله به عراق در سال 2003، ایالات متحده از فناوری ماهواره‌های سیستم موقعیت یاب جهانی برای هدایت بمب‌های هوشمند استفاده کرد. اصول «حقوق در جنگ» عموماً برای تنظیم مخاصمات مسلحانه روی زمین تنظیم شده و متناسب با عملیات نظامی در فضای ماورای جو نیستند. با وجود این تلاش‌ها باید برای تعریف، تبیین و توسعة اصول موجود با حداکثر شفافیت ممکن انجام شود. این مسائل در کنار مقاومتی که از سوی برخی کشورها صورت می‌گیرد به این معنی است که برای حفاظت از فضای ماورای جو از تهدیدات نظامی، قوانین موجود کافی نیست و قواعد خاص‌تری مورد نیاز هستند.

کلیدواژه‌ها

عنوان مقاله [English]

International Humanitarian Law and Military to Take Advantage of the Space Beyond the Atmosphere

نویسندگان [English]

  • Fariba Razipour
  • M. Najafi-Asfad

چکیده [English]

During Persian Gulf war (1990), space assets played a valuable role and their usefulness was revealed for the first time. Space technology creates an infrastructure that helps military strategies. It helped a lot in some battles such a Afghanistan, Siberia and Cosovo war.In this article we are going to explain the existing rules on international humanitarian law and other rules and have some recommendations to protect outer space from military threats.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Outer space
  • humanitarian law
  • space war
  • militarization of space
  1. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996 I.C.J. 259, 8 July.
  2. Henckaerts, J. M. and Doswald-beck L., Customary International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  3. Protocol For The Prohibition Of The Use In War Of Asphyxiating, Poisonous Or Other Gases, And Of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, appendix XXII, 17 June, 1925, 94 UNTS 65.
  4. Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3.
  5. Res, S. , 1674, 6, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1674, 28 April 2006.
  6. Maogoto, J and Freeland, S., The Final Frontier: “The Laws of Armed Conflict and Space Warfare”, Connecticut Journal of International Law, 2007,  9.
  7. Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grams Weight, Nov.29, 1868, 1 AJIL
  8. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under water, 5 Aug. 1963, 14 U. N. S. T. 1313.
  9. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty), 1967, art. IV.
  10. Jasani, B., “Space Weapons and International Security An Overview“, Space Weapons and International Security, No.19, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford University Press, 1987.
  11. Stares, P. B, The Militarization Of Space: U. S. Policy, Cornell University Press, 1985, P.111.
  12. Morgan R. A, “Military Use of Commercial Communication Satellites: A New Look at the Outer Space Treaty and Peaceful Purposes,” Journal of Air Law and Commerce, No. 60, 1994, pp.237, 267.
  13. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, art. IX at: whitehouse .gov/nsc/nss.html, last visit at: Oct. 2007.
  14. Mosteshar, S., “Militarization of Outer Space: Legality and Implications for the Future of Space Law”, 47th Proceeding of the Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 2004, p. 473.
  15. Tucehurst R., “The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict”, Nov. 1997, at:icrc. org/ Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JNHY, last visit at: Oct. 2009.
  16. Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (with protocols), 10 Oct. 1980, No. 22495, 1342 U.N.T.S. 163, entered into force 2 Dec. 1983.
  17. این مبتنی بر نظر دیوان کیفری نورنبرگ است که مفاد کنوانسیون چهارم لاهه 1946 را در زمره قواعد عرفی بین‌المللی اعلام می‌کند.
  18. Diplomatic Conference on Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflict: Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions art. 1(2), 8 June 1977, 16 I.L.M. 1396-97.
  19. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, 18 May 1977, 31 U.N.S.T. 333, entered into force 5 Oct. 1978.
  20. Schmitt, M. N, “Green War: An Assessment of the Environmental Law of International Armed Conflict,” Yale Journal of International Law, No. 22, 1997, pp.1, 82.
  21. Cheng, B., “The 1967 Outer Space Treaty 30th Anniversary,” Air & Space Law, No.XXIII 1998, pp. 156-
  22. Res, G. A., 1348 (XIII), 3, U. N. Doc. A/4090, 13 Dec. 1958.
  23. Res, G. A., 1962 (XVIII), 4, U.N. Doc. A/5656, 13 Dec. 1963.
  24. Jasentuliyana, N., International Space Law and the United Nations, Springer Publication, New York, 1999, PP. 174-175.
  25. UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/SR.66, at 6, 1966.
  26. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Merits), ICJ Rep 14, 1986.
  27. مواد 25 و 48 منشور ملل متحد
  28. UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/SR.66, at 6, 1966.
  29. SS Lotus (France V. Turkey), PCIJ Ser. A., No. 10, 1927.
  30. Christol, C., Space Law: Past Present and Future, Springer Publication, New York, 1991, 70.
  31. Gorove, S, “Implications of International Space Law for Private Enterprise,” Annals of Air & Space Law, No.7, 1982, p. 321
  32. ماده 1 منشور ملل متحد.
  33. ماده 103 منشور ملل متحد.
  34. . مواد 39 و 42 منشور ملل متحد
  35. Certain Expenses of the United Nations, ICJ Rep 151, 1962, at 167.
  36. ماده 3 موافقتنامه ماه
  37. Bothe, M., “Terrorism and the Legality of Pre-Emptive Force,” European Journal of International Law ( EJIL), No.14, 2003, p. 227.
  38. Hostages Trial (United States of America V. Wilhelm List et al.), 8 Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals 56, 1949, at 111.
  39. Bourbonnière, M. and Lee, R. J., “Legality of the Deployment of Conventional Weapons in Earth Orbit: Balancing Space Law and the Law of Armed Conflict”, European Journal of International Law (EJIL) , No.18, Nov. 2007.
  40. UN Conference on Disarmament, 'Letter Dated 27 June 2002 from the Permanent Representative of the People's Republic of China and the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the Conference on Disarmament.
  41. US Mission in Geneva, 'Remarks by Ambassador Eric M. Javits to the Conference on Future Security in Space', at: usmission.ch/press 2002/0529javitssecurityinspace. html,last Visit at: July 2010.
  42. UN Conference on Disarmament, 'Letter Dated 7 March 2007 from the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation and the Permanent Representative of China to the Conference on Disarmament.
  43. ماده 4 کنوانسیون ثبت
  44. GA Res 1721B (XVI), 20 Dec.1961.
  45. Vlasic, “The Legal Aspects of Peaceful and Non-Peaceful Uses of Outer Space”, in Peaceful and Non-Peaceful Uses of Space Problems of Definition for the Prevention of an Arms Race, Jasani (ed.), UNIDIR, 1991, p. 190
  46. The Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 Oct. 1907.
  47. ماده 7 کنوانسیون ثبت